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An Essential Grammar
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12111 Spanish: An Essential Grammar is a concise and user-friendly reference
3 guide to the most important aspects of Spanish.
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It presents a fresh and accessible description of the language as it is spoken
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both in Europe and Latin America. The book sets out the complexities of
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Spanish in short, readable sections, and explanations are clear and free
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from jargon.
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9 The Grammar is the ideal reference source for the learner and user of
20111 Spanish. It is suitable for either independent study or for students in
1 schools, colleges, universities and adult classes of all types.
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Features include:
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• Clear distinctions between the essential and basic aspects of Spanish
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grammar and those that are more complex
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• Full use of authentic examples
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• Simple explanations of areas that customarily pose problems for
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English speakers
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• Detailed contents list and index for easy access to information
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Peter T. Bradley is Emeritus Professor of Latin American History and Ian
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Mackenzie is Senior Lecturer in Spanish, both at Newcastle University.
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Routledge Essential Grammars1111
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Essential Grammars are available for the following languages: 3
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Chinese 5
Danish6
Dutch 7
English 8
Finnish 9
Greek 1011
Hungarian 1
Modern Hebrew 12111
Norwegian 3
Polish4
Portuguese5
Spanish 6
Swedish 7
Thai8
Urdu9
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Other titles of related interest published by Routledge:1
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Modern Spanish Grammar: A Practical Guide, Second Edition 3
By Juan Kattán-Ibarra and Christopher J. Pountain 4
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Modern Spanish Grammar Workbook, Second Edition 6
By Juan Kattán-Ibarra and Irene Wilkie7
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Colloquial Spanish9
By Untza Otaola Alday 30111
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Colloquial Spanish 22
By Untza Otaola Alday 3
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Spanish
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An Essential Grammar
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First published 200412111
by Routledge
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11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
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Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
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29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 6
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group 7
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This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004.
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© 2004 Peter T. Bradley and Ian Mackenzie
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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced1
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
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now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in3
writing from the publishers.4
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data 5
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library6
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data7
Bradley, Peter T., 1943–8
Spanish: an essential grammar/Peter T. Bradley and Ian Mackenzie.
p. cm. – (Routledge Essential grammars)
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Includes index.30111
1. Spanish language–Grammar. I. Mackenzie, I.E., 1965– II. Title.1
III. Series: Essential grammar.
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PC4112.B63 2004
468.2′421–dc222003020645 3
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ISBN 0-203-49729-5 Master e-book ISBN 5
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ISBN 0-203-57133-9 (Adobe eReader Format)
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ISBN 0–415–28642–5 (hbk)
ISBN 0–415–28643–3 (pbk)9
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4 Contents
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12111 Preface xiii
3 Acknowledgementxv
4 Symbols xvi
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6 Chapter 1 The alphabet, pronunciation, stress,
7 spelling and punctuation1
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1.1 The alphabet1
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1.2 Pronunciation 2
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1.3 Stress and written accents6
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1.4 Spelling – capital letters9
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1.5 Punctuation11
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Chapter 2 Nouns 13
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6 2.1 Plural forms of nouns13
7 2.2 Gender 18
8 2.3 Collective nouns and agreement 26
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30111 Chapter 3 Definite and indefinite articles27
1 3.1 Forms of the articles27
2 3.2 The definite article29
3 3.3 The indefinite article36
4 3.4 The neuter article lo40
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6 Chapter 4 Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns 43
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8 4.1 Demonstrative adjectives 43
9 4.2 Masculine and feminine demonstrative pronouns45
404.3 Neuter demonstrative pronouns46
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Contents
Chapter 5 Possessive adjectives 47 1111
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5.1 Possessive adjectives before the noun 47
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5.2 Possessive adjectives after the noun48
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5.3 Definite and neuter articles with possessives49
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5.4 Avoidance of ambiguity with su/sus and suyo/a/os/as 49
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5.5 Parts of the body and personal effects50
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5.6 Possessive adjectives with adverbs and prepositions 50
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Chapter 6 Adjectives52 9
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6.1 Gender52
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6.2 Singular and plural of adjectives 55
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6.3 Shortening of adjectives56
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6.4 Position of adjectives57
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6.5 Translating English ‘un-’ + adjective 61
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6.6 Verb + adjective sequences62
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Chapter 7 Adverbs 63 7
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7.1 Adverbs ending in -mente63 9
7.2 Adverbs not ending in -mente65 20111
7.3 Adverbial phrases 68 1
7.4 Adjectives used as adverbs69 2
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Chapter 8 Personal pronouns 70
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8.1 Subject pronouns72 5
8.2 Direct and indirect object pronouns 74 6
8.3 Prepositional object pronouns 77 7
8.4 Reflexive pronouns 78 8
8.5 The position and order of personal pronouns 80 9
8.6 Use of le(s) in place of lo(s) and la(s)82 30111
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Chapter 9 Indefinite adjectives, pronouns and 2
adverbs 84 3
9.1 Algo84 4
9.2 Alguien 85 5
9.3 Alguno85 6
9.4 Uno 86 7
9.5 Mucho, poco 87 8
9.6 Bastante, suficiente 88 9
9.7 Varios88 40
vi 9.8 Demasiado 89 41111
11119.9 Todo89 Contents
2 9.10Cualquiera92
3 9.11Ambos/as93
4 9.12Cada93
5 9.13Solo94
6 9.14Demás 94
7 9.15Cierto95
8 9.16Tal, semejante95
9 9.17Otro96
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1 Chapter 10 Verb forms 97
12111 10.1Present indicative and present subjunctive98
3 10.2Imperative 112
4 10.3Imperfect tense114
5 10.4Preterite tense115
6 10.5Imperfect subjunctive120
7 10.6Future and conditional tenses121
8 10.7Future subjunctive 121
9 10.8Non-finite forms122
20111 10.9Compound tenses124
1 10.10 Progressive or continuous tenses 126
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3 Chapter 11 Uses of tenses128
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11.1Simple tenses128
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11.2Compound tenses135
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11.3Progressive or continuous tenses 139
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11.4Expressions of time with hacer, desde and llevar 141
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11.5Verbs like gustar143
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12.1Subjunctive in subordinate que clauses 145
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12.2Subjunctive required by certain subordinating
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conjunctions 153
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12.3Subjunctive in main clauses157
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12.4The sequence of tenses – which subjunctive tense
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to use 158
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12.5Additional uses of the -ra form of the imperfect
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subjunctive159
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12.6The future subjunctive 160
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Contents
Chapter 13 Conditional clauses 161 1111
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13.1 Use of the subjunctive after si 161
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13.2 Indicative tenses after si162
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13.3 Conditional sentences without si164
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Chapter 14Reflexive verbs 165 6
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14.1Formation of reflexive verbs165
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14.2Reflexive verbs with a reflexive meaning 166
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14.3Reflexive verbs with a reciprocal meaning 166
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14.4Reflexive verbs with an indirect object pronoun 167
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14.5Se as an indefinite subject 168
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14.6Reflexive verbs ‘to get/have something done’168
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14.7Verbs reflexive in form but not in meaning168
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14.8Transitive verbs used reflexively with intransitive
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meaning169
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14.9 Verbs of becoming 171
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14.10 Emphatic reflexive verbs172
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Chapter 15 Passive constructions 176 9
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15.1 Ser and estar with the past participle176
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15.2 Alternatives to passive constructions 177
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Chapter 16 Modal auxiliary verbs 182 3
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16.1 Deber 182
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16.2 Tener que 183
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16.3 Haber 184
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16.4 Querer184
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16.7 Soler 187
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Chapter 17 Infinitive constructions 188 2
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17.1 Finite verb + infinitive 188 4
17.2 Prepositions + infinitive189 5
17.3 Infinitives in impersonal constructions194 6
17.4 An infinitive as the subject of a verb 194 7
17.5 An infinitive with an explicit subject 195 8
17.6 The infinitive as a verbal noun196 9
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18.1Basic use of the gerund197
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18.2Gerund and main verb with different subjects 198
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18.3Gerund in place of a relative clause 198
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18.4Gerund with certain verbs199
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18.5Cases where the gerund is not used 200
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19.1Forms of the imperative202
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19.3Alternative ways of expressing commands207
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20.1Situations which demand ser209
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20.2Situations which demand estar211
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20.3Ser and estar with adjectives211
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20.4Ser and estar with past participles214
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20.5Special uses of estar214
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21.1A215
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21.2Antes de, ante, delante de 220
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21.3Bajo, debajo de220
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21.4Con221
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21.5Contra, en contra de 222
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21.6De 222
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21.7Dentro de, fuera de224
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21.8Desde225
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21.9Detrás de, tras225
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21.10 En, encima de, sobre 226
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21.11 Enfrente de, frente a228
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21.12 Entre229
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21.13 Hacia, hasta 229
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21.14 Según230
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21.15 Sin231
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21.17 Cuando and donde used as prepositions232
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Contents
Chapter 22Por and para 233 1111
22.1 Uses of por 234 2
22.2 Uses of para236 3
22.3 Por and para with estar – comparisons 237 4
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Chapter 23 Numerals and numerical expressions238 6
23.1 Cardinal numbers238 7
23.2 Ordinal numbers 244 8
23.3 Fractions 245 9
23.4 Collective and multiple numerals246 1011
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Chapter 24Negation 248 12111
24.1 No248 3
24.2 Other negative words249 4
24.3 Expressions using no253 5
24.4 Spanish negatives with English affirmative meaning 254 6
24.5 Affirmative phrases with negative meaning254 7
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Chapter 25Relative clauses 255 9
25.1 Differences between Spanish and English relative20111
clauses 255 1
25.2 Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses256 2
25.3 Spanish relative pronouns, adverbs and adjectives 257 3
25.4 A basic system257 4
25.5 Alternatives to the basic system263 5
25.6 Focusing on words or phrases264 6
25.7 Use of el que and quien to mean ‘anybody who’,7
‘those who’ 266 8
25.8 Cuanto ‘as much/many as’267 9
25.9 Relative clauses with infinitives267 30111
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Chapter 26 Comparative and superlative 2
constructions 268 3
26.1 Comparisons involving adjectives or adverbs 268 4
26.2 Comparisons involving nouns 270 5
26.3 Comparisons involving verbs 271 6
26.4 Uses of de after más and menos271 7
26.5 Cuanto más and cuanto menos 272 8
26.6 Superlative constructions 273 9
26.7 Other comparative expressions 276 40
x26.8 Other expressions of equality – ‘the same (thing) as’ 276 41111
1111Chapter 27Questions and exclamations277 Contents
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27.1 Subject-verb inversion 277
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27.2 Spanish interrogative words278
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27.3 Question tags282
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27.4 Exclamations 282
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7 Chapter 28Word order284
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28.1 New versus old information 284
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28.2 Item under discussion at beginning of sentence 286
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28.3 Emphatic stress286
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28.4 Specific constructions287
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28.5 Position of adverbs288
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28.6 Subject-verb inversion in questions289
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5 Chapter 29Word formation291
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29.1 Suffixes291
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29.2 Prefixes300
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29.3 Combinations of words303
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20111 Chapter 30 Differences between Latin American
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30.1 Pronunciation305
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30.2 Forms of address 306
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30.3 Le and lo309
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30.4 Uses of tenses 309
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30.5 El que, quien and que310
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30.6 Vocabulary 311
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Glossary317
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4Preface
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12111 Spanish, or castellano as native speakers often refer to it, now rivals English
3 as the major world language. This state of affairs is largely the product of
4 events that took place centuries ago.
5 By the late thirteenth century, in the wake of the Christian struggle to
6 reconquer the Iberian Peninsula and expand the political influence of
7 Castile, castellano had spread from the north to become established as the
8 standard form of language in most of the Iberian Peninsula. However,
9 whereas cities such as Toledo and later Madrid were centres of this stan-
20111 dard language in spheres such as public administration and literature,
1 around the thriving commercial centre of Seville in Andalusia, the language
2 developed and spread with alternative distinctive norms such as seseo and
3 yeísmo.
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5 In 1492 the first written grammar of castellano was published and
6 Christopher Columbus initiated a Spanish transoceanic maritime enterprise
7 that would carry the language of the Iberian Peninsula throughout the
8 world, and especially to what would become known as the Americas. It
9 was during this process of imperial expansion in the sixteenth century that
30111 the language was more regularly described as lengua española, the language
1 of Spain.
2 Today, the linguistic legacy of that past is more than 400 million speakers
3 of Spanish in 23 countries, 19 of them in Latin America. Therefore, the
4 vast majority of Spanish speakers live outside Spain, principally in Latin
5 America. About one tenth of all speakers reside in the Iberian Peninsula,
6 more than 102 million live in Mexico, which constitutes the largest national
7 conglomeration of Spanish speakers, whilst those in the Canary Islands,
8 Equatorial Guinea, Morocco and the Philippine Islands are also a testi-
9 mony to the past. More recent emigration trends have planted Spanish
40speakers in Canada, and in the USA where there is an increasing aware-
41111 ness of the social and political significance of Hispanics. In January 2003, xiii
Preface the US Census Bureau estimated that they are the largest and fastest 1111
growing minority numbering some 37 million or 13 per cent of the total 2
population.3
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Largely due to its popularity as a second language, many more people speak
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English worldwide, but Spanish is the only other language that has a
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comparable international significance. Today, the vast majority of Spanish
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speakers throughout the world display characteristics of speech and writing
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that are reminiscent of features long ago established in Andalusia.
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Nowadays, this is usually attributed to the fact that the earliest explorers
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and settlers originated in that region, that later émigrés passed through it
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en route to the Canary Islands and the outposts of empire, whilst cities
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such as Seville and Cadiz dominated commercial enterprise in ships crewed
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by Andalusian seamen. If there is such a thing as standard Spanish, this
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book seeks to reflect the fact that today rather than being purely Peninsular
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it is intercontinental and especially American, but also that regional vari-
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ation does not signify that it is undergoing a process of profound
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fragmentation.
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4 Acknowledgement
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12111 The authors would like to acknowledge the invaluable assistance of Palma
3 Roldán Núñez, who vetted and in many cases amended the examples used
4 in this book.
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>becomes, changes to 12111
/or, alternative forms or meanings 3
=equivalent to 4
+plus5
×× unacceptable grammar6
[SP] word or phrase found usually (though not always exclusively) in 7
Peninsular Spanish8
[LA] word or phrase found usually (though not always universally) in 9
Latin America 20111
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xvi41111
1111 Chapter 1
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4The alphabet,
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6pronunciation, stress,
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8spelling and punctuation
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121111.1 The alphabet
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4 Due to recent changes, the composition of the Spanish alphabet today is
5 more like English and other Romance languages. Because older reference
6 works used a different system of classification, a few words of explanation
7 may be helpful.
8
9 Until 1994, ch and ll were considered to be separate letters in the Spanish
20111 alphabet. Consequently, in dictionaries and word lists there were separate
1 listings for words beginning with each of them, after c and l respectively.
2 Likewise, this alphabetical order was observed when those letters occurred
3 within words, with the result that cocha would be listed after all other
4 words beginning with coc-, and callada after calzo. In 1994, under inter-
5 national pressure and the impact of computer sorting programs, the
6 Association of Academies of Spanish adopted the internationally accepted
7 standard of alphabetical order, no longer considering ch and ll to be sepa-
8 rate letters. However, as a distinctive feature of the language, Spanish still
9 considers ñ to be a separate letter. Dictionaries, therefore, still retain a sepa-
30111 rate listing for the few words beginning with ñ (after those beginning with
n) and this order is preserved when ñ occurs within words (caña being listed
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after canzonetista).
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41.2 Pronunciation
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6 The only sure way of pronouncing Spanish correctly is to listen closely and
7 try to imitate native speakers. However, a list of the Spanish letters together
8 with their usual pronunciation is given in Table 1.1. This is offered as gen-
9 eral guidance, drawing attention to instances where native speakers of
40English commonly make mistakes. Moreover, only the most important dif-
41111 ferences between Peninsular and Latin American Spanish are highlighted.1
Table 1.1The sounds of Spanish
Letter NamePronunciation Examples
a aas in hat, never hate nor above anagrama – each a has
the same sound
b be similar to English b; strongest after n or m, or following a pausebalsa, cambio
weaker between vowels haba
c ce before a, o, u and consonants: as in catcasa, acta
before e and i: as th in thin in the centre and north of Spain and as cena
s in six in Latin America and much of Andalusia (called seseo)
chcheas in churchchacal, chacha
d de strongest after n or l, or following a pauseanda, balde
weaker between vowels or at the end of words, in some cases inviñedo, casado,
Spain to the point of disappearance, e.g. ado > aoMadrid, usted
overall less strong than English d and pronounced with the tongue
behind the top teeth and not on the ridge above the teeth, cf. dead
and dedo ‘finger’
e eas in egg, not as meet, never silent as in English pose merece – each e has
the same sound
f efeas in English falta
g ge before a, o, u: as in go, but less strong between vowelsgala, daga
before e and i: like ch in Scottish loch (never as in general)gente, giba
gu before e or i is pronounced like g in English go (the u is silent)guerrilla, guiño
gu before a, and gü, are pronounced like gw in Gwenaveriguar, pingüe
hhache silent hora
ii as ee in meet, never as in pit pita
jjotalike g before e and i, i.e. as ch in Scottish loch jaca, migaja, reloj
kkamainly in foreign words, like c in English cat kilo
lele similar to l in English clearLola, Lima
ll ellefor purists, like lli in English million, but today frequently softened to calle, llevar
y as in English yes, especially in Andalusia and parts of Latin America
(called yeísmo); in the River Plate and some other areas, close to
s in pleasure
meme as m in Englishmemo
nene as n in Englishnene
ñeñe more like ny in canyon than ni in opinionEspaña, caña
oo as the o in English not, a single sound, so never as in vote locomotor, ñoño – each
o has the same sound
ppesimilar to English, but less aspirated Pedro
silent in the combinations pt and ps psicología
sometimes dropped in writing from the combination pt (andseptiembre/setiembre
occasionally from ps)
qcualways followed by u
qui and que like c in catquema, saque
qua and quo as quick quásar, quórum
Table 1.1 continued
Letter Name PronunciationExamples
r ere between vowels or after b, c, d, g, p, t – a single tap of the tonguecaro, embrollo, agrio,
at the front of the mouth, as in Scottish pearlpotro
at the beginning of words and after l or n – a trill or roll of the tongue rojo, alrededor, Enrique
rrerrea trill or roll of the tonguecarro
when a prefix ending in a vowel is added to a word beginning with para + rayos >
r, the r > rrpararrayos
care should be taken to distinguish between words such as pero
‘but’ and perro ‘dog’
s ese generally as in sit rather than rose sesenta
t tesimilar to English, but less aspirated tetera
like Spanish d, pronounced with the tongue against the top teeth and
not the ridge above them, cf. English total and Spanish total
u u like oo, as in English plume and never cube; a single soundpluma, fuma, cubo
v uve pronounced exactly like Spanish b, e.g. tubo and tuvo, cabo and
cavo sound the same; never v in English very
strongest after a pause, and after n vino, enviar, ¡Vale!
weaker between vowelscava, bravo
w uve rare, only in borrowed words, usually as in wood whisky, windsurf
doble occasionally as v/bwáter
x equis between vowels: as in axis taxi, éxito
before consonants: as s (especially in Spain) explicar, extenso
in Mexico: sometimes like Spanish j México, Oaxaca
yi griega at the beginning of words and between vowels: as in English yet, yema, mayoría
but in parts of Latin America, especially the River Plate and Chile,
like s in pleasure
at the end of a word and as the conjunction y: = Spanish i rey
zzeta or as th in thin in the centre and north of Spainzorro, mazorca
zedaas s in six in most of the Spanish-speaking world including Andalusia
and Latin America (seseo)
apart from the name of the letter itself, z is very rare before e and i,
being replaced by c, e.g. feliz but felices. Amongst the few exceptions
are: Nueva Zelanda, Zimbabwe, zigzag
Notes:
1 The letters of the alphabet are feminine, e.g. la efe. In contrast to most nouns, the names for letters use the feminine article la even when they begin
with a stressed a, i.e. la a, la hache (cf. el agua, el hacha). The plurals add -s, with the exception of vowels, which add -es: efes, aes, ees (or es),
íes, oes, úes.
2 Each Spanish vowel has a single sound, whereas English vowels may have different soun 第1页 / 共343页 第2页 / 共343页 第3页 / 共343页 ©版权说明： 本文档由用户提供并上传，收益归属内容提供方，若内容存在侵权，请进行举报或认领！ |
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